(sec:radiation)= # Radiation & Radiation Transport To account for high temperature gas radiation, the DSMC method can be coupled with a radiation module {cite}`Beyer2022JQSRT,Beyer2022RGD,Pfeiffer2024ICARUS`. For a deeper physical knowledge of the implemented options see Ref. {cite}`Beyer2022JQSRT`. The radiation module calculates cell-local emission and absorption coefficients on the same computational mesh as the flow field solver using a line-by-line (LBL) method, and the radiative transfer solver simulates the radiative energy transfer through the computational domain using a photon Monte Carlo (pMC) solver. The LBL solver can also be used in a stand-alone version. The enitre radiation simulation can be run highly parallel using a MPI-shared memory concept (MPI 3.0). The LBL solver uses a domain decomposition and the pMC solver distributes the photon bundles across the different cores. The radiation module can be enabled by compiling PICLas with the following parameter PICLAS_TIMEDISCMETHOD = Radiation In addition, the following parameter must be set for larger computational meshes PICLAS_INKIND8 = ON For the radiation module, the following options are available and must be set accordingly Radiation-RadType = 1 ! Full radiation module with radiative energy transfer 2 ! Blackbody radiation in entire computational domain 3 ! Emission and absorption coefficients only (stand-alone radiation solver) 4 ! Shock tube mode To define the species which are used in the radiation simulation, the following parameters must be set in one single ini-file (as an example, atomic nitrogen is chosen) Part-Species1-MassIC = 2.32600E-26 ! N Molecular Mass Part-Species1-MacroParticleFactor = 2.5E10 Part-Species1-SpeciesName = N Part-Species1-InteractionID = 1 Part-Species1-Tref = 273 ! in K Part-Species1-dref = 3.0E-10 ! in m Part-Species1-omega = 0.24 Part-Species1-RadiationIonizationEn = 117345 ! Ionization Energy, cm-1 Part-Species1-RadiationRadius_A = 0.7 ! Radius, A Part-Species1-Starkex = 0.33 ! Stark Index Part-Species1-NuclCharge = 1 ! Charge (1:neutral particles, 2:ions) Radiation-Species1-SpectraFileName = Ni.dat The `Radiation-Species[$]-SpectraFileName` contains information about level energy and radiative transition lines. An example is given in the regression-tests and can e.g. be built using information available in the NIST database. The data files for atoms contains information about the energy levels (number of energy levels, then degeneracy, level energy in cm-1, the energy level index, the quantum number of the released electron, and the Gaunt factor) and the possible transition lines (number of possible transition lines, then wavelength in Angstrom, lower energy level index, upper energy level index, degenercy of the lower and upper energy level, Einstein coefficient for spontaneous emission, a value that is not needed anymore, and the Stark halfwidth). For molecules it contains the different energy levels (first number of levels, then their names), then transition bands (with the indices of the upper and lower level and then the type of the transition). The following table shows a list of the implemented transition types: 1: parallel transition, Delta Lambda = 0 2: perpendicular transition, Delta Lambda = +-1 3: 2Sigma -> 2Pi 4: 2Sigma -> 2Sigma 5: 2Pi -> 2Pi 6: 3Pi -> 3Pi Next, the different energy levels are described in more detail and vibtrational and rotational constants are defined (degeneracy, Te, D0, we, wexe, weye, weze, Be, $\alpha$e, $\mu$, $\nu$spin, alternating factor, De, $\beta$e, Requilibrium, A, $\Lambda$). Last, information on the transition lines are given (first number of lines, then nuupper level, nulower level, sumre/Franck-Condon-Factor, Franck-Condon-Factor, SumRe2) For convenience, the calculation of each species can be disabled with Part-Species[$]-DoRadiation = F In a first step of the tool chain, the local emission and absorption coefficients are determined on the same computational mesh used by the flow field solver. Therefore, the same mesh has to be read in. If the emission in a single cell is to be calculated (`Radiation-RadType = 1`), a mesh file containing one single cell must be provided. Different radiation mechanisms can be considered, depending on the energy state of the involved electron Radiation-bb-atoms = T ! atomic line radiation (bound-bound) Radiation-bb-molecules = T ! molecular band radiation (bound-bound) Radiation-bf = T ! recombination radiation (bound-free) Radiation-ff = T ! Bremsstrahlung (free-free) If the complete radiation module (1) is selected, the flow field information (DSMCState) previously calculated with PICLas is used as input by setting the following parameters Radiation-MacroRadInput = T Radiation-MacroInput-Filename = PROJECTNAME_DSMCState_000.001000000.h5 Often, radiation solvers use the translational temperature of the electrons as $T_\mathrm{E}$ to determine upper state densities. However, PICLas also offers the possibility to use the actual electronic excitation temperature Radiation-UseElectronicExcitation = T For a single cell (`Radiation-RadType = 1`), temperatures and densities can be given by Part-Species[$]-RadiationTtrans = 10000. Part-Species[$]-RadiationTelec = 10000. Part-Species[$]-RadiationTvib = 10000. Part-Species[$]-RadiationTrot = 10000. Part-Species[$]-RadiationNumDens = 1E20. The units are Kelvin and m^-3. For electrons, they are red in by Radiation-TElectrons = 10000. Radiation-NumDensElectrons = 1E20. The wavelength range and the discretization for the simulation can be set with the following parameters. Radiative transitions outside of this range will not be considered in the simulation! Radiation-MinWaveLen = 200. ! minimum wavelength in nanometers Radiation-MaxWaveLen = 1000. ! maximum wavelength in nanometers Radiation-WaveLenDiscr = 500000 ! Number of spectral discretization points To save computational memory, wavelengths can also be spectrally binned together. Radiation-WaveLenReductionFactor = 10 For `Radiation-RadType = 3`, the next step is to determine the radiative energy transfer through the computational domain (change in radiation intensity due to the emission and absorption of the surrounding gas). This is done with a photon Monte Carlo method, where photon bundles are traced through the computational domain by solving the radiative transfer equation. Due to the time scales involved, only the steady-state solution is used, furthermore, scattering effects within the gas are neglected. For shock tubes (`Radiation-RadType = 4`), a simplified version of the radiative energy transfer along a tanget slab is calculated. The required diameter of the shock tube can be set (in meters) with Radiation-ShockTubeDiameter = 0.16 For the radiative energy transfer of `Radiation-RadType = 3`, the number of photon bundles in each computational cell is set by Radiation-NumPhotonsPerCell = 200 Instead of placing the same number of photons in each computational cell and giving them different energies, it is also possible to give them the same energy and redistribute them across the computational domain according to the emitted energy. Radiation-AdaptivePhotonNumEmission = T ! true:photons have the same energy, false:number of photons per cell is equal The initial properties of the photon bundles are set randomly. However, if a more uniform distribution within a cell is desired, different options are available. For the position, they are placed in the cell using a 2,3-Halton sequence. Additionally, their directions can be distributed along a spiral configuration Radiation-PhotonPosModel = 2 ! 1:random 2:Halton Radiation-DirectionModel = 2 ! 1:random 2:spiral The absorption along their paths can be calculated (1) analytically or (2) stochastically, however, it is strongly recommended to do it analytically Radiation-AbsorptionModel = 1 To determine the wavelength of each photon bundle, two different methods are implemented, (1) an acceptance-rejection method and (2) a bisection method Radiation-PhotonWaveLengthModel = 1 ! 1:Acceptance-Rejection 2:Bisection The acceptance-rejection method is more computationally intensive than the bisection method. However, it should be more accurate, because it consideres individual wavelengths rather than integral values. Thus, the acceptance-rejection method can never select a wavelength that has no emission, while the bisection method has a very low probability of doing so. For surface properties for photons on a reflecting wall, different options are possible. They can either be specularly reflected Part-Boundary3-Condition=reflective Part-Boundary3-PhotonSpecularReflection = T or diffuse. If they are reflected diffusely, the energy accommodation coefficient can bet set ([0,1]) depending on the surface properties. Part-Boundary3-Condition=reflective Part-Boundary3-PhotonSpecularReflection = F Part-Boundary3-PhotonEnACC = 0.5 In addition, PICLas offers the possibility to sample spectra on a virtual sensor and to compare them with measured data. Two different options are available: (1) with a viewing angle and (2) along a line-of-sight (LOS) Radiation-RadObservationPointMethod = 2 !1:observation angle, 2:LOS The location of the virtual sensor can be defined with Radiation-ObservationMidPoint = (/-1.0,1E-5,0.0/) and the view direction with Radiation-ObservationViewDirection = (/1.0,0.0,0.0/) Its diameter can be set with Radiation-ObservationDiameter = 0.1 and the viewing angle with Radiation-ObservationAngularAperture = 0.404533 Along a LOS, it is also possible to use as many photons per cell as wavelength discretizations. These photons then receive the actual energy of the corresponding wavelength in order to obtain a perfect sampling of the corresponding energies for spectral comparisons. Radiation-ObservationCalcFullSpectra = T To simulate with a high resolution and to match the units of the radiance, the output can be expressed in different units, e.g. to have a spectral discretization of 1/A and to get the radiance in /nm, the following parameters must be set Radiation-WaveLenReductionFactorOutput = 10 To account for instrumental broadening, the radiance profile can be mathematically convolved with a trapezoid Radiation-ObservationDoConvolution = T The trapezoid can be defined by a topwidth and a basewidth, both read-in in angstroms Radiation-ObservationSlitFunction = (/1.7,3.42/) The simulations can also be run on a two-dimensional rotationally symmetric mesh. To do this, the following options must be set. Different tracking routines are used than with an axisymmetric particle solver, therefore, the Part-Weight-Radial-ScaleFactor can have different values Particles-Symmetry2D = T Particles-Symmetry2DAxisymmetric = T Part-Weight-Type = radial Part-Weight-Radial-ScaleFactor = 10000 Part-Weight-CloneMode = 2 Part-Weight-CloneDelay = 6 Part-Weight-CellLocalWeighting = F